UPSC Current Affairs 13th August 2026

Parliament Passes Bill to Rename Kerala as ‘Keralam’

In August 2026, the Indian Parliament successfully passed the Kerala (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2026. The Bill formally changes the constitutional name of the state from “Kerala” to “Keralam” to align its official identity with the native Malayalam language.

1. Background and Context

• The Legislative Journey:The Kerala Legislative Assembly had unanimously passed resolutions in August 2023 and June 2024, urging the Union Government to change the state’s name under Article 3 of the Constitution.
• Union Cabinet Nod:The Union Cabinet approved the renaming proposal in February 2026, after which the President referred the Draft Bill to the Kerala Assembly for its mandatory views (the Assembly unanimously backed it).
• Parliamentary Passage:The Bill was passed by the Lok Sabha on August 11, 2026, and by the Rajya Sabha via voice vote on August 12, 2026. It will officially become law upon receiving the President’s assent.

2. Constitutional Provisions: Article 3

The renaming of any state in India is governed by Article 3 of the Constitution, which deals with the formation of new states and the alteration of areas, boundaries, or names of existing states.

The Procedure:

1. Presidential Recommendation:A Bill to change a state’s name can be introduced in Parliament only on the prior recommendation of the President.
2. State Legislature’s Views:Before recommending the Bill, the President must refer it to the concerned state legislature to express its views within a specified time.(Note: The views of the state legislature are not binding on Parliament.)
3. Simple Majority: The Bill requires only a simple majority in both Houses of Parliament.
4. Not an Article 368 Amendment: Under Article 4, laws made under Article 3 to amend the First Schedule (Names of States) and the Fourth Schedule (Rajya Sabha seat allocations) are not considered constitutional amendments under Article 368.

Consequential Amendments:

The passage of this Bill will replace references to ‘Kerala’ with ‘Keralam’ in Article 31A, Article 290A, the First Schedule, and the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution.

3. Rationale Behind the Change

• Linguistic and Cultural Identity:The state was formed on November 1, 1956, based on linguistic reorganization, merging the Malayalam-speaking regions of Travancore, Cochin, and Malabar.In Malayalam, the state has always been called “Keralam”.The Assembly argued that the English naming convention (“Kerala”) was a colonial legacy that created a discrepancy between native usage and constitutional nomenclature.
• Etymology & History:
  • The earliest epigraphic record of the region is found in Emperor Ashoka’s Rock Edict II (257 BCE), which refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra (the Chera dynasty).
  • Scholars like Hermann Gundert suggest the word derives from the Old Tamil/Malayalam root cher/cheram (meaning “to join”) and alam (meaning “land” or “region”).

4. Impact and Precedents

• Administrative Shift:Once enacted, the ‘State of Keralam’ will be deemed substituted in all existing laws, legal proceedings, and official documents.However, the state government is empowered to adapt existing laws within a transition period of one year.
• Tourism & Daily Life: For citizens and travellers, this is strictly a constitutional and official shift. Popular tourism branding (like “God’s Own Country”), landmarks, and travel documents remain functionally unaffected in the short term.

Past Examples of State Renaming:

• United Provinces $\rightarrow$ Uttar Pradesh (1950)
• Madras $\rightarrow$Tamil Nadu (1969)
• Mysore $\rightarrow$Karnataka (1973)
• Uttaranchal $\rightarrow$ Uttarakhand (2006)
• Orissa $\rightarrow$ Odisha (2011)

UPSC Prelims/Mains Takeaway

• Polity: Be thoroughly prepared on the mechanisms of Article 3 vs. Article 368. Remember that while a state can initiate a name change via a resolution, the ultimate authority to alter a state’s name or boundaries rests entirely with the Union Parliament.
• History: The historical connection of the Chera Kingdom, Ashokan Edicts (Keralaputra), and the Aikya Kerala (United Kerala) movement of the 1920s could feature in Prelims history MCQs.

The Relevance of Regional Parties in Indian Politics

The political footprint of regional parties is currently under intense scrutiny. Recent electoral setbacks, a wave of political defections, and the ongoing debate surrounding the “One Nation, One Election” (ONOE) framework have sparked discussions on whether regional parties can withstand the pressure of dominant national narratives.

1. Classification of the Party System in India

India operates under a vibrant multi-party system featuring both national and regional forces.

• Constitutional Basis: The term “political party” was not in the original Constitution. It was introduced via the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985 (Tenth Schedule), which addressed political defections.
• Formal Classification: Under the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (Section 29A), parties register with the Election Commission of India (ECI). The Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968 further classifies recognized parties into:
  • National Parties
  • State Parties (commonly referred to as “regional parties” due to their concentrated regional influence).

2. Why is the Political Space for Regional Parties Shrinking?

Regional parties are facing unprecedented electoral, financial, and structural challenges:

• Rise of Dominant National Parties: As of August 2026, regional parties independently govern only three States (Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland) and one Union Territory (Puducherry)—a sharp drop from nine states between 2015 and 2020.
• The FPTP Penalty: In the First-Past-the-Post system, a marginal drop in vote share can translate into disproportionately massive seat losses for regional parties compared to their national counterparts.
• Organizational Decay & Parivarvad: Weak internal democracy and dynastic succession create factionalism. Capable grassroots leaders often migrate to national parties offering better structural opportunities.
• Resource Asymmetry: While individual candidates have expenditure limits (e.g., Rs 95 lakh for Lok Sabha in larger states), political parties face no spending caps. This heavily favors well-funded national parties over financially constrained regional entities.
• Weaponization of Anti-Defection Laws: The Tenth Schedule’s merger provisions are often exploited to engineer party splits. Prolonged judicial disputes and allegations regarding the selective use of central agencies further destabilize regional outfits.
• Fiscal Squeeze on States: Over-reliance on Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS), the rising use of cesses/surcharges (outside the divisible pool under Article 271), and gubernatorial friction limit a State’s fiscal autonomy, thereby hindering a regional party’s ability to deliver targeted welfare.
• Threat of ONOE: Synchronizing elections risks subordinating local, state-specific issues to overarching macroeconomic or national security narratives favored by national parties.
• Shift to Aspirational Politics: Voters are moving away from purely identity-based politics (caste/language) toward aspirational politics (infrastructure, jobs). Regional parties failing to pivot to “developmental regionalism” are losing ground.

3. Evidence of Resilience

Despite severe headwinds, regional parties have not lost their fundamental relevance:

• Stable Vote Share: Regional parties still command approximately one-third of the national vote (securing 33.52% in the 2024 Lok Sabha elections).
• Assembly-Level Dominance: Voters consistently exhibit a distinct preference for regional parties during State elections, reinforcing the strength of regional identities.
• Coalition Kingmakers: Even when not governing independently, regional parties remain crucial coalition partners across numerous states (e.g., Bihar, UP, Maharashtra, J&K), heavily influencing government formation and policy.

4. Significance of Regional Parties in Indian Democracy

Regional parties are the bedrock of India’s federal structure and democratic ethos:

• Counterweight to Centralization: They prevent the monopolization of power by a single national entity, actively demanding administrative and fiscal devolution.
• Promoting Electoral Federalism: During the coalition era (1989–2014), dependence on regional allies forced the Centre to institutionalize state inclusion through bodies like the Inter-State Council and NITI Aayog.
• Welfare Pioneers: Regional governments frequently incubate progressive policies that evolve into national models (e.g., Tamil Nadu’s Midday Meal Scheme).
• Deepening Democratic Choice: They drive high voter engagement (e.g., Tamil Nadu’s record 84.69% turnout in 2026) by addressing hyper-local concerns.
• Voicing State Issues: They force the national parliament to address state-specific developmental deficits, inter-state river disputes, and localized agricultural concerns that a monolithic national manifesto might ignore.

5. Measures to Strengthen Regional Parties

To ensure the survival of regional voices and protect India’s federal fabric, several systemic reforms are necessary:

Conclusion

Regional parties are undergoing a severe stress test rather than facing absolute obsolescence. Their future survival hinges on their ability to democratize internally and pivot toward governance-driven agendas. A healthy Indian democracy relies on these regional voices to translate the constitutional promise of “Unity in Diversity” into tangible political reality.

Quick Revision: Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the difference between a State Party and a National Party?A State Party is recognized by the ECI based on its electoral performance within a specific State, whereas a National Party meets broader recognition criteria across multiple States.
2. What are the key conditions for recognition as a State Party?Criteria include securing 6% of valid votes plus 2 Assembly seats, winning 3% of total Assembly seats (or at least 3 seats), winning 1 Lok Sabha seat per 25 allotted to the state, or securing a flat 8% of total valid votes in the state.
3. Why do regional parties remain relevant despite losing independent governments?They retain a highly durable voter base, evidenced by securing over 33% of the Lok Sabha vote in 2024 and maintaining strong performances in direct State Assembly elections.
4. How do regional parties aid Indian federalism?They act as institutional counterweights to centralized power, advocate for fiscal federalism, and elevate localized socio-economic issues to the national policy discourse.

India’s Infrastructure Transformation (FY 2014–15 to FY 2026–27)

Over the past 12 years, India’s infrastructure strategy has fundamentally shifted from piecemeal expansion to integrated capacity creation. This paradigm shift is driven by a massive increase in public capital expenditure—jumping from ₹2 lakh crore in FY 2014–15 to ₹12.2 lakh crore in FY 2026–27—aimed at cementing the foundations for sustained economic growth and long-term competitiveness.

1. Transport & Mobility Infrastructure

Railways: Modernization & Safety

• Capex Surge: Budget allocation increased nearly nine-fold to ₹2.78 lakh crore in FY 2026–27.
• Green Transition: Achieved 99.6% route electrification by July 2026. Launched India’s first indigenously developed Hydrogen Fuel Cell Trainset (Jind–Sonipat section) in July 2026.
• Rolling Stock & Speed: Inducted 162 Vande Bharat, 2 Vande Bharat Sleeper, and 72 Amrit Bharat trains. Development is underway for the Mumbai–Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail (350 kmph).
• Safety & Upgrades: Commissioned the indigenous Kavach 4.0 Automatic Train Protection system across 2,633 route km. Redeveloped 261 stations under the Amrit Bharat Station Scheme.

Roads & Highways: The Economic Backbone

• Network Expansion: Now the world’s second-largest road network (63.73 lakh km). National Highways expanded by 61% to reach 1,46,572 km by March 2026.
• High-Capacity Corridors: Four-lane (and above) highways increased from 18,371 km to 45,516 km. Completed 22,590 km under the Bharatmala Pariyojana.
• Rural Last-Mile: Completed 4.11 lakh km of rural roads under PMGSY. Launched PMGSY-IV (Sept 2024) to connect 25,000 remaining habitations by 2029.

Civil Aviation: Democratizing Air Travel

• Regional Connectivity: Operational airports more than doubled from 74 (2014) to 165 (2026), alongside 25 newly approved greenfield airports.
• UDAN & Modified UDAN: The scheme connected 95 unserved airports/heliports. The Modified UDAN Scheme (FY 27 to FY 36) focuses on remote/island regions with Viability Gap Funding.
• Digital Integration:Digi Yatra facilitates paperless transit at 38 airports for over 10 crore passengers.

Urban Mass Transit: Rapid Expansion

• Metro Network: Expanded from 248 km (5 cities) in 2014 to 1,155 km (26 cities) in 2026, becoming the world’s third-largest metro network.
• Transit Innovations: Operationalized India’s first underwater metro (Kolkata under the Hooghly River) and the first Water Metro system (Kochi).

2. Maritime Momentum & Port-Led Development

• Capacity & Efficiency: Major port cargo capacity doubled to 1,728 MMTPA. Vessel turnaround time drastically reduced from 94 hours to 48.8 hours.
• Inland Waterways: Operationalized 32 out of 111 declared National Waterways for cost-effective freight.
• Global Standing: India emerged as the #1 ship-recycling nation in 2025 (35.4% global share). Jawaharlal Nehru Port climbed to 22nd globally in the Container Port Performance Index 2025.
• Strategic Independence: Launched the Bharat Maritime Insurance Pool (BMIP) in May 2026 (USD 1.5 billion capacity) to reduce reliance on foreign maritime insurance for cargo and hull risks.

3. Logistics & Industrial Capacity

• Integrated Planning: The PM GatiShakti National Master Plan leverages 3,291 data layers for multimodal planning. The National Logistics Policy synchronizes supply chains across transport modes.
• Project Monitoring: The PRAGATI platform resolved bottlenecks for 382 mega-projects worth over ₹85 lakh crore.
• Industrial Infrastructure:
  • Launched the BHAVYA Scheme (Bharat Audyogik Vikas Yojna) to develop 100 plug-and-play industrial parks.
  • Approved BHAVYA Rasayan for dedicated chemical parks with common waste-management utilities.
  • Developing 20 smart cities across seven industrial corridors and executing 7 PM MITRA Textile Parks.

4. Social & Urban Infrastructure

• Water Security:Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) scaled rural tap-water access from 3.23 crore to 15.91 crore households. JJM 2.0 extends the mission to December 2028 for sustainable supply.
• Housing for All (PMAY): Delivered nearly 1 crore urban houses and 3.13 crore rural houses. Notably, 75% to 96% of these assets are individually or jointly owned by women, driving financial empowerment.
• Urban Revitalization: The SWAMIH Fund rescued stressed real estate, delivering 63,000 homes. AMRUT and the Smart Cities Mission executed massive upgrades in civic infrastructure, digital governance, and sewerage.

5. Engineering Marvels (Key Prelims Facts)

Conclusion

India’s infrastructure philosophy has evolved from merely fixing physical deficits to establishing a digitally integrated, multimodal logistics ecosystem. By leveraging technology (PM GatiShakti) and focusing on strategic self-reliance (Kavach, BMIP, Hydrogen trains), India is building the structural capacity required for its transition to a developed economy.

Mains Practice Question

Q.“The last decade of infrastructure development in India marks a definitive shift from isolated project execution to integrated capacity creation.” Evaluate this statement in the context of PM GatiShakti and the National Logistics Policy.

Prelims

Q. Which one of the following is a purpose of `UDAY’, a scheme of the Government? (2016)

a) Providing technical and financial assistance to start-up entrepreneurs in the field of renewable sources of energy
b) Providing electricity to every household in the country by 2018
c) Replacing the coal-based power plants with natural gas, nuclear, solar, wind and tidal power plants over a period of time
d) Providing for financial turnaround and revival of power distribution companies 

Ans: (d)

Mains 

Q. What is the need for expanding the regional air connectivity in India? In this context, discuss the government’s UDAN Scheme and its achievements. (2024) 

Q. What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvements. (2023) 

Q. Why is Public Private Partnership (PPP) required in infrastructural projects? Examine the role of PPP model in the redevelopment of Railway Stations in India. (2022)

Professor Deepak Dhar Awarded the 2026 Dirac Medal

Renowned Indian theoretical physicist Professor Deepak Dhar has been named a co-recipient of the prestigious 2026 Dirac Medal by the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP). This highlights India’s growing global footprint in fundamental scientific research.

1. Context & Significance

• The Award: Recognized for groundbreaking contributions to statistical physics and non-equilibrium systems.
• Co-Recipients: He shares the 2026 honour with Bernard Derrida, Marc Mézard, and Haim Sompolinsky.
• Indian Milestone: Prof. Dhar is only the second scientist working in India to receive this medal, following Ashoke Sen in 2014.
• Elite Dual Honor: Prof. Dhar is now among an exclusive group of roughly ten scientists globally to have won both the Boltzmann Medal (highest honour in statistical physics) and the Dirac Medal.

2. The Core Science: Abelian Sandpile Model

Prof. Dhar’s seminal work, developed in 1990, is a mathematical advancement of the Self-Organized Criticality (SOC) concept (first proposed in 1987). It explains how simple, localized interactions can trigger complex, cascading behaviors in massive systems.

• The Sandpile Analogy: Imagine dropping sand grains one by one into a pile. Eventually, the pile reaches a “critical state.” At this threshold, adding just one more grain can trigger an avalanche. The size of this avalanche is unpredictable—it could be a tiny slip or a massive collapse.
• The “Abelian” Property: In mathematics, an “Abelian” operation means the order of actions does not matter (like $A + B = B + A$). Prof. Dhar proved that in this model, the final stable shape of the sandpile remains exactly the same regardless of the order in which the grains topple.
• Self-Organized Criticality (SOC): This principle shows that complex systems naturally evolve toward a critical threshold without any external tuning. Once at this threshold, minor disturbances create cascading chain reactions.

3. Real-World Applications

The Abelian Sandpile Model is not just abstract math; it provides a framework to predict and understand unpredictable cascading phenomena in the real world, such as:

• Geophysics: The frequency and magnitude of earthquakes.
• Environment: The spread of forest fires.
• Urban Infrastructure: How minor braking incidents cascade into massive traffic jams.
• Biology: Neural activity and electrical cascades in the brain.
• Economics: Financial market crashes and stock fluctuations.

4. Profile: Prof. Deepak Dhar

5. Prelims Focus: The Dirac Medal and ICTP

The Dirac Medal

• Origin: Instituted in 1985 in honor of Paul A.M. Dirac, a founding father of quantum mechanics.
• Announcement: Awarded annually on August 8th (Dirac’s birthday).
• Exclusion Rule: Traditionally, it is not awarded to scientists who have already won a Nobel Prize, Fields Medal, or Wolf Prize. (However, many Dirac Medallists go on to win the Nobel later).

The ICTP (Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics)

• Location: Trieste, Italy.
• Foundation: Established in 1964 by Pakistani physicist and Nobel laureate Abdus Salam to bridge the scientific gap between the Global South and the developed world.
• Administration: Operates under a tripartite agreement between the Government of Italy, UNESCO (it is a Category 1 Institute), and the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency).

UPSC Previous Year Questions (PYQs) for Context

Mains

• Q. Discuss the work of ‘Bose–Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics. (2018)
• Q. The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano, and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings? (2014)

Quick Revision: Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is the Dirac Medal?Instituted in 1985 by the ICTP, it is one of the highest global honors recognizing outstanding contributions to theoretical and mathematical physics.
2. What is the Abelian Sandpile Model?A mathematical model demonstrating how simple local interactions cause complex cascading effects. Its “Abelian” nature means the final stable state of the system is independent of the sequence of internal changes (topplings).
3. What is Self-Organized Criticality (SOC)?A property of dynamic systems that naturally evolve toward a critical, unstable state where a minor trigger can cause events of vastly different magnitudes (e.g., avalanches).
4. Why is this award significant for India?Prof. Dhar is only the second scientist working in India (after Ashoke Sen) to win the Dirac Medal, underscoring India’s vital, continued contributions to fundamental scientific research on the global stage.

Supreme Court Ruling on Police Custody under BNSS, 2023

In a landmark judgment (State of Andhra Pradesh v. Suda Suresh Veera Venkata Naga Raju), the Supreme Court has clarified the scope of police custody and the rights of the accused under the newly enacted Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 (BNSS). The ruling specifically interprets provisions related to remand, legal counsel, and interrogation procedures.

1. Staggered Police Custody (Section 187(2) BNSS)

The Court clarified the new rules governing how and when police can seek custody of an accused.

• The BNSS Provision: Under Section 187(2) of the BNSS, police custody is capped at a maximum of 15 days. However, unlike the old system, these 15 days do not have to be exhausted continuously at the very beginning of the arrest. They can be sought “in parts” (staggered) within the first 40 days (for offences with a 60-day investigation limit) or 60 days (for offences with a 90-day limit).
• No Absolute Cut-off: The Court mandated that a Magistrate cannot impose an absolute, non-extendable limit preventing police from seeking further custody, provided it falls within the overall 15-day cap and the statutory 40/60-day window.
• Rationale for the Change: Investigations are dynamic. This flexibility allows law enforcement to request police custody later in the investigation if fresh facts, newly discovered evidence, or new leads emerge that require direct interrogation of the accused.

Comparative Analysis: BNSS vs. CrPC (1973)

2. Detention Periods and Default Bail (Sections 58 & 187 BNSS)

The judgment reiterated the constitutional and statutory safeguards against indefinite detention:

• 24-Hour Rule: An arrested person ordinarily cannot be detained in police custody beyond 24 hours without explicit authorization from a Magistrate.
• Statutory Remand Limits: If the investigation cannot be completed within 24 hours, the Magistrate can authorize detention up to:
  • 90 days: For serious offences punishable with death, life imprisonment, or imprisonment of 10 years or more.
  • 60 days: For all other offences.
• Right to Default Bail: Upon the expiry of the applicable 60/90-day period, if the investigation is incomplete, an absolute right to “default bail” accrues to the accused, provided they are prepared to furnish bail.

3. Right to Legal Counsel During Interrogation (Section 38 BNSS)

The Court provided critical clarity on the extent of an accused’s right to legal representation while in custody.

• Sight vs. Sound: While Section 38 entitles an arrested person to meet an advocate of their choice during interrogation, this does not grant the right to the continuous, ongoing physical presence of the lawyer throughout the entire session.
• No Intervention: The lawyer is permitted to be present within sight of the accused (to ensure no physical coercion takes place) but cannot be within hearing distance or intervene in the investigative process.

4. Audio-Visual Recording of Proceedings

To balance investigative efficiency with transparency, the Court laid down practical guidelines for digital recording:

• Interrogations & Discoveries: Mandatory audio-visual recording is required for actual interrogation sessions and any proceedings related to the discovery/recovery of evidence.
• Transit Exempted: The police are not required to conduct uninterrupted videography of the accused’s transit (e.g., transporting the accused from the lock-up to the court or the crime scene), as it is practically burdensome and unnecessary.

UPSC Analytical Takeaway

This ruling represents a careful balancing act by the Supreme Court. By validating the staggered 15-day custody under BNSS, it strengthens the hands of investigating agencies dealing with complex, multi-layered crimes (such as financial fraud or organized crime) where evidence unfolds slowly. Simultaneously, by demarcating the boundaries of Section 38 (Right to Advocate) and mandating AV recordings for interrogations, it attempts to insulate the accused from custodial overreach and coercion.

Supreme Court Directive on Declaring Cancer a “Notifiable Disease”

The Supreme Court has recently directed the remaining 19 States and Union Territories (UTs) to consider officially declaring cancer a “notifiable disease.” Currently, 17 out of India’s 36 States and UTs have already done so, acting on the recommendations of a Parliamentary Standing Committee.

1. Context and Background

• The PIL & Data Deficit: The directive was prompted by a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) that exposed severe inadequacies in the Indian Council of Medical Research’s (ICMR) National Cancer Registry Programme.
• Poor Coverage: The current registry captures data for only about 10% of India’s total population. More alarmingly, its rural coverage stands at a mere 1%, leaving massive blind spots in national health data.

2. What is a “Notifiable Disease”?

A notifiable disease is any disease that is required by law to be reported to government public health authorities whenever a diagnosis is made.

• Legal Framework: The mandate is typically enforced under public health laws, most notably the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897.
• Nodal Framework: The primary mechanism for tracking these diseases is the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP), which operates under the aegis of the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC).

3. Implications of the Notification

Declaring cancer notifiable shifts the burden of reporting from voluntary surveillance to a strict legal obligation.

• Mandatory Reporting: All healthcare providers—including government hospitals, private clinics, and independent medical practitioners—must legally report all suspected, probable, and confirmed cases to designated state authorities.
• Policy Impact: This comprehensive data pipeline enables governments to maintain accurate epidemiological data, strengthen geographical surveillance, promote early-stage detection initiatives, and efficiently allocate funds for oncology treatment and infrastructure.

4. The Notifiable Disease Framework in India

• Decentralized and Non-Uniform: Because “Public Health” is a State subject under the Seventh Schedule, India lacks a single, uniform national list of notifiable diseases. The power to notify rests primarily with State Governments and UTs with legislative assemblies, resulting in significant regional variations.
• Commonly Notified Diseases: Diseases routinely notified across most states include Tuberculosis (TB), Dengue, Malaria, Cholera, Hepatitis, Measles, Leptospirosis, and Polio.
• Recent Additions: COVID-19 was universally notified during the pandemic. Recently, states have expanded their lists to include Snakebite (2024) and Human Rabies (2025).

5. Global Commitments: The IHR (2005)

At the global level, disease notification is governed by the International Health Regulations (2005).

• Mandate: The IHR is a legally binding international treaty under the World Health Organization (WHO).
• Obligation: It requires all member states to promptly report any public health risks, outbreaks, or events that could potentially cross borders and have international health implications, regardless of the disease’s origin.